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The cusp y²=x³ has Puiseux parameter (t²,t³)
Example
In with coordinates , the equation defines the cusp germ at the origin. It is irreducible, its only singular point near the origin is the origin itself, and
is a convergent injective Puiseux parametrisation of whose exponent is minimal among the exponents of holomorphic parametrisations of this germ in the standard coordinates; over a base value the two branch values are .
Facts & Assumptions
Given: The germ and its zero germ .
is a Weierstrass polynomial of degree in : it is monic of degree with coefficients in vanishing at the origin, and ; it is regular in of order and is its own Weierstrass preparation (Weierstrass polynomials in the last variable, Weierstrass preparation theorem).
If in the germ ring, then and are regular in and the product of their Weierstrass polynomials is the Weierstrass polynomial of ; conversely a factorisation into Weierstrass polynomials of positive degree makes reducible. Hence is irreducible in if and only if its Weierstrass polynomial is irreducible in (Prepared factorizations correspond to germ factorizations).
The units of a polynomial ring over a domain are exactly the constant polynomials whose value is a unit in the coefficient ring; a nonunit can therefore be constant. In a factorization of a monic polynomial, the leading coefficients of the factors multiply to , so each is a unit (The units of over an integral domain are exactly the constant polynomials whose values are units of ). The units of the one-variable germ ring are the germs with nonzero value at (A germ is a unit exactly when its value at is nonzero, so is local).
A nonzero holomorphic germ of one variable has finite order and equals with a unit; order is additive under multiplication, so the square of a germ of order has order . In particular the germ has order and has no holomorphic square root (The order of a zero is the exponent in its local holomorphic factorization).
An irreducible germ is reduced, and for a reduced germ the vanishing ideal of is ; the sum of the branches of a reduced germ is the union of the zero germs of its irreducible factors, and these are exactly the irreducible components, so a reduced germ with a single irreducible factor defines an irreducible hypersurface germ (Reduced holomorphic germ for a hypersurface, Irreducible and prime elements of an integral domain, The vanishing ideal of a reduced hypersurface germ is principal, Finite unique irreducible components of a hypersurface germ, Irreducible hypersurface germs and their components).
A point of a reduced hypersurface germ is singular exactly when the differential of the local reduced equation vanishes at (Regular and singular points of an analytic hypersurface).
Every irreducible complex-analytic plane curve germ with reduced defining germ admits, after an invertible complex-linear change of coordinates, parameters , and a holomorphic with such that is injective with image germ exactly ; the exponent is primitive when it is minimal among the exponents of all parametrisations of the germ in the same coordinates (Convergent Puiseux parametrisation of an irreducible plane branch).
A nonzero polynomial of degree over has exactly roots counted with multiplicity, hence at most distinct roots (A complex polynomial of degree has exactly roots counted with multiplicity).
Proof technique: direct — factor the monic quadratic, compute the image and injectivity of the explicit map, and compare the two branches over a nonzero base value to force minimality of the exponent.
Verification
is irreducible in . By [F1] and [F2] it suffices to show that the monic quadratic is irreducible. Suppose with nonunits. Their leading coefficients multiply to the leading coefficient , so both are units by [F3]. Neither factor can have degree , since a degree-zero factor is its leading coefficient and would be a unit. Since their degrees sum to , both have degree ; rescaling by their unit leading coefficients, we may write , with . Comparing coefficients gives and , hence , contradicting [F4]. Thus is irreducible in the polynomial ring and, by [F2], in the germ ring; by [F5] is reduced and .
is injective. Indeed means and . The first equation gives ; if , then , so and ; otherwise .
The image of on is exactly the full representative of the germ . First, , so the image lies in , and . Conversely, let with ; choose with , so . If , then and . If , then gives , so and ; replacing by if necessary, we get with . Hence every point of the representative is attained, and with has order .
Every holomorphic parametrisation of the germ in these coordinates has . Such a parametrisation has image containing a full representative of the germ for some neighbourhood of . Choose with ; both points lie in , because . So there are with and , ; the two parameters are distinct since their images are. Thus the polynomial of degree has at least two distinct roots, so by [F8].
is an irreducible hypersurface germ and its only singular point near is the origin. By step 1.1 the reduced defining germ is irreducible, so by [F5] the germ is irreducible: its decomposition has the single component . The differential vanishes at the origin and at no other point of , because forces and then . At a point with the translate of is a germ with nonzero differential, hence is not a product of two nonunits, that is, it is an irreducible and therefore reduced germ vanishing on near ; so it is a local reduced equation of at and [F6] makes a regular point.
Consequently is an injective convergent Puiseux parametrisation of in the standard coordinates: it is holomorphic on , it is injective by step 1.2, the holomorphic function satisfies , and by step 1.3 its image germ is exactly , matching the conclusion of [F7]; over a base value the two branch values are , the cusp's Puiseux exponent .
Steps 1.4, 2.1 and 3.1 prove all the assertions: is irreducible and singular only at the origin, is an injective convergent parametrisation of its germ, and since every parametrisation in the same coordinates has exponent by step 1.4 while has exponent , the exponent is primitive (minimal), so this is the parametrisation the Puiseux theorem produces for the cusp in these coordinates.
Depends on
- The units of $R[x]$ over an integral domain are exactly the constant polynomials whose values are units of $R$
- Complex-analytic hypersurface germ and its reduced equation
- Irreducible and prime elements of an integral domain
- Irreducible hypersurface germs and their components
- Reduced holomorphic germ for a hypersurface
- Regular and singular points of an analytic hypersurface
- Weierstrass polynomials in the last variable
- Prepared factorizations correspond to germ factorizations
- The vanishing ideal of a reduced hypersurface germ is principal
- A germ is a unit exactly when its value at $0$ is nonzero, so $\mathcal O_{m,0}$ is local
- A complex polynomial of degree $n$ has exactly $n$ roots counted with multiplicity
- Finite unique irreducible components of a hypersurface germ
- Convergent Puiseux parametrisation of an irreducible plane branch
- Weierstrass preparation theorem
- The order of a zero is the exponent in its local holomorphic factorization
Used by
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Sources
- Jiří Lebl, Tasty Bits of Several Complex Variables, Chapter 6 §§6.1–6.7 (standard reference, not scraped)
- Jean-Pierre Demailly, Complex Analytic and Differential Geometry, Chapter II §§2, 4 and 6 (standard reference, not scraped)