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The cusp y²=x³ has Puiseux parameter (t²,t³)

Example

In C2 with coordinates (x,y), the equation f=y2−x3 defines the cusp germ X=Z(f) at the origin. It is irreducible, its only singular point near the origin is the origin itself, and

γ(t)=(t2,t3),h(t)=t3=∑k>2aktk,

is a convergent injective Puiseux parametrisation of X whose exponent 2 is minimal among the exponents of holomorphic parametrisations of this germ in the standard coordinates; over a base value x0≠0 the two branch values are ±x03/2.

Facts & Assumptions

Given: The germ f=y2−x3∈OC2,0 and its zero germ X=(Z(f),0).

[F1]

f is a Weierstrass polynomial of degree 2 in y: it is monic of degree 2 with coefficients in OC,0 vanishing at the origin, and f(0,y)=y2; it is regular in y of order 2 and is its own Weierstrass preparation (Weierstrass polynomials in the last variable, Weierstrass preparation theorem).

[F2]

If f=gh in the germ ring, then g and h are regular in y and the product of their Weierstrass polynomials is the Weierstrass polynomial of f; conversely a factorisation W=GH into Weierstrass polynomials of positive degree makes f reducible. Hence f is irreducible in OC2,0 if and only if its Weierstrass polynomial is irreducible in OC,0[y] (Prepared factorizations correspond to germ factorizations).

[F3]

The units of a polynomial ring over a domain are exactly the constant polynomials whose value is a unit in the coefficient ring; a nonunit can therefore be constant. In a factorization of a monic polynomial, the leading coefficients of the factors multiply to 1, so each is a unit (The units of R[x] over an integral domain are exactly the constant polynomials whose values are units of R). The units of the one-variable germ ring are the germs with nonzero value at 0 (A germ is a unit exactly when its value at 0 is nonzero, so Om,0 is local).

[F4]

A nonzero holomorphic germ of one variable has finite order k and equals tku with u a unit; order is additive under multiplication, so the square of a germ of order m has order 2m. In particular the germ x3 has order 3 and has no holomorphic square root (The order of a zero is the exponent in its local holomorphic factorization).

[F5]

An irreducible germ is reduced, and for a reduced germ h the vanishing ideal of Z(h) is (h); the sum of the branches of a reduced germ is the union of the zero germs of its irreducible factors, and these are exactly the irreducible components, so a reduced germ with a single irreducible factor defines an irreducible hypersurface germ (Reduced holomorphic germ for a hypersurface, Irreducible and prime elements of an integral domain, The vanishing ideal of a reduced hypersurface germ is principal, Finite unique irreducible components of a hypersurface germ, Irreducible hypersurface germs and their components).

[F6]

A point q of a reduced hypersurface germ is singular exactly when the differential of the local reduced equation vanishes at q (Regular and singular points of an analytic hypersurface).

[F7]

Every irreducible complex-analytic plane curve germ X with reduced defining germ f admits, after an invertible complex-linear change of coordinates, parameters m≥1, δ>0 and a holomorphic h with h(t)=∑k>maktk such that t↦(tm,h(t)) is injective with image germ exactly X; the exponent m is primitive when it is minimal among the exponents k≥1 of all parametrisations s↦(sk,j(s)) of the germ in the same coordinates (Convergent Puiseux parametrisation of an irreducible plane branch).

[F8]

A nonzero polynomial of degree k≥1 over C has exactly k roots counted with multiplicity, hence at most k distinct roots (A complex polynomial of degree n has exactly n roots counted with multiplicity).

Proof technique: direct — factor the monic quadratic, compute the image and injectivity of the explicit map, and compare the two branches over a nonzero base value to force minimality of the exponent.

Verification

1.1givenF1F2F3F4

f is irreducible in OC2,0. By [F1] and [F2] it suffices to show that the monic quadratic f=y2−x3∈OC,0[y] is irreducible. Suppose f=GH with G,H nonunits. Their leading coefficients multiply to the leading coefficient 1, so both are units by [F3]. Neither factor can have degree 0, since a degree-zero factor is its leading coefficient and would be a unit. Since their degrees sum to 2, both have degree 1; rescaling by their unit leading coefficients, we may write G=y−a, H=y−b with a,b∈OC,0. Comparing coefficients gives a+b=0 and ab=−x3, hence a2=x3, contradicting [F4]. Thus f is irreducible in the polynomial ring and, by [F2], in the germ ring; by [F5] f is reduced and I0(X)=(f).

1.2givenalgebra

γ(t)=(t2,t3) is injective. Indeed γ(t1)=γ(t2) means t12=t22 and t13=t23. The first equation gives t2=±t1; if t2=−t1, then t13=t23=−t13, so 2t13=0 and t1=0=t2; otherwise t2=t1.

1.3givenF1algebra

The image of γ on Δδ={∣t∣<δ} is exactly the full representative Z(f)∩{∣x∣<δ2} of the germ X. First, f(γ(t))=t6−t6=0, so the image lies in Z(f), and ∣t2∣=∣t∣2<δ2. Conversely, let (x,y)∈Z(f) with ∣x∣<δ2; choose t with t2=x, so ∣t∣<δ. If x=0, then y2=0 and y=0=γ(0). If x≠0, then y2=x3=x⋅x2 gives (y/x)2=x=t2, so y/x=±t and y=±t3; replacing t by −t if necessary, we get (x,y)=(t2,t3)=γ(t) with t2=x. Hence every point of the representative is attained, and h(t)=t3=∑k>2aktk with a3=1 has order 3>2.

1.4givenF8choosealgebra

Every holomorphic parametrisation s↦(sk,j(s)) of the germ X in these coordinates has k≥2. Such a parametrisation has image containing a full representative X∩U of the germ for some neighbourhood U of 0. Choose ε>0 with (ε2,±ε3)∈U; both points lie in X, because (±ε3)2=ε6=(ε2)3. So there are s1≠s2 with sik=ε2 and j(s1)=ε3, j(s2)=−ε3; the two parameters are distinct since their images are. Thus the polynomial Tk−ε2 of degree k has at least two distinct roots, so k≥2 by [F8].

2.1step 1.1F5F6algebra

X is an irreducible hypersurface germ and its only singular point near 0 is the origin. By step 1.1 the reduced defining germ f is irreducible, so by [F5] the germ X=Z(f) is irreducible: its decomposition has the single component Z(f)=X. The differential df=(−3x2, 2y) vanishes at the origin and at no other point of X, because x=0 forces y2=x3=0 and then y=0. At a point q∈X with q≠0 the translate of f is a germ with nonzero differential, hence is not a product of two nonunits, that is, it is an irreducible and therefore reduced germ vanishing on X near q; so it is a local reduced equation of X at q and [F6] makes q a regular point.

3.1step 1.2step 1.3step 2.1F7

Consequently γ(t)=(t2,t3) is an injective convergent Puiseux parametrisation of X in the standard coordinates: it is holomorphic on Δδ, it is injective by step 1.2, the holomorphic function h(t)=t3 satisfies h(t)=∑k>2aktk, and by step 1.3 its image germ is exactly X=Z(f), matching the conclusion of [F7]; over a base value x0≠0 the two branch values are ±x03/2, the cusp's Puiseux exponent 3/2.

4.1step 1.4step 2.1step 3.1F7∎

Steps 1.4, 2.1 and 3.1 prove all the assertions: X is irreducible and singular only at the origin, γ(t)=(t2,t3) is an injective convergent parametrisation of its germ, and since every parametrisation in the same coordinates has exponent k≥2 by step 1.4 while γ has exponent 2, the exponent is primitive (minimal), so this is the parametrisation the Puiseux theorem produces for the cusp in these coordinates.

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