How statement and proof provenance work
The first chip identifies the source of the statement or construction; the second identifies the source of its local proof or verification.
- Literature-sourced: the exact statement appears in a cited source; only wording and notation differ.
- AI-adapted: a semantically identical restatement of literature-sourced material, modulo indexing, notation, and boundary cases adopted by the library.
- AI-generated: a genuinely novel statement formulated by AI, with no source for the claim itself.
These labels describe origin, not correctness: citations and verification chips remain separate evidence.
Weak law does not imply strong law
Statement refuted
A weak sample-mean law need not be a centered strong law. Assuming AC, there are integrable real with in probability but not tending to zero almost surely.
Facts & Assumptions
The recursion theorem: Let be a Peano system (def-peano-system), in particular the natural numbers (def-natural-numbers). For any set , any element , and any function , there is a unique function such that and for all .
A box in with parameters is Lebesgue measurable of measure , whichever of its faces are included: Let , assume the Axiom of Countable Choice (def-countable-choice), and let be reals for . Write
(def-multidimensional-rectangle-and-volume). Then is open and is closed, so both are Borel and Lebesgue measurable, and every set with is Lebesgue measurable with
In particular this covers the four one-dimensional face conventions in each coordinate — the open box, the closed box , the half-open box of def-half-open-box, and every mixture of them, in any combination of coordinates — and it gives measure to all of them whenever for some . For a half-open box with infinite parameters the value is already (thm-lebesgue-measure-is-a-complete-measure).
Countably many independent copies of a prescribed law exist: Assume countable choice and dependent choice. Every probability measure on is the common law of a countable independent family of -valued random elements.
Measurable coordinatewise functions preserve independence: Let be an independent family of random elements . For each , let be measurable. Then the family is independent.
Second Borel-Cantelli lemma under pairwise independence: Let be pairwise independent events with Then
Counterexample
Given: The objects, hypotheses and definitions in the statement. Its conclusions are to be established below.
AC restricted to a countable family gives CC; choosing a successor for each point of an entire relation and using F1 gives DC. On the identity U has for 0< by F2. F3 supplies IID copies . Let , which are independent by F4.
Set =0 and . These finite-valued variables are integrable; telescoping gives . Thus for every >0, and .
The sum of diverges: each block contributes at least 1/2. The complementary probabilities n/(n+1) also have divergent sum. Apply F5 to the independent events =1 and separately to =0. Both occur infinitely often on a common conull event. Hence the centered averages have limsup 1 and liminf 0 there, refuting the centered strong law while step 1.2 establishes the weak law.
Depends on
- Countably many independent copies of a prescribed law exist
- Second Borel-Cantelli lemma under pairwise independence
- Convergence in probability
- Strong law of large numbers for a sequence
- The Axiom of Choice
- Measurable coordinatewise functions preserve independence
- A box in $\mathbb{R}^n$ with parameters $a_i\le b_i$ is Lebesgue measurable of measure $\prod_{i<n}(b_i-a_i)$, whichever of its faces are included
- The Axiom of Countable Choice ($\mathrm{AC}_\omega$)
- The axiom of dependent choice: a relation in which every element is related to something admits an $\mathbb{N}$-indexed chain
- The recursion theorem
Used by
Nothing in the library uses this result yet.
Dependency tree · two levels
45 results within two dependency steps of this one, each drawn at its shortest distance from it. An arrow runs from a result to what uses it, so the chart reads left to right and ends at this result, which carries a heavier outline. Every node is a link to that result. Click elsewhere on the chart to enlarge it.
Sources
- Durrett, §§2.4–2.5, pp. 76–87 (standard reference, not scraped)